Renaissance

Early modern Europe is the term used by historians to refer to a period in the history of Europe which spanned the centuries between the end of the... Middle Ages and the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, roughly the late 15th century to the late 18th century. The early modern period is often considered to have begun with such events as the invention of moveable type printing in the 1450s; the Fall of Constantinople in 1453; the end of the Wars of the Roses in 1485; the Voyages of Christopher Columbus and the completion of the Reconquista in 1492 or the start of the Protestant Reformation in 1517. Its end point is often linked with the outset of the French Revolution in 1789, or with the more nebulous origins of industrialism in late 18th century Britain. As with most periodizations of history, however, the precise dates chosen vary. Some of the more notable events of the early modern period included the Reformation and the religious conflicts it provoked , the European colonization of the Americas and the peak of the European witch-hunt phenomenon.
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As a means of recording the passage of time, the 15th century was the century which lasted from 1401 to 1500. Constantinople, the capital of the... Eastern Roman Empire, falls to emerging Ottoman Turks, forcing Western Europeans to find a new trade route. The Papacy was split in two parts in Europe for decades, until the Council of Constance. Under the rule of Yongle Emperor, who built the Forbidden City and commanded Zhenghe to explore the world overseas, Ming Dynasty's territory reached pinnacle. Tamerlane established a major empire in the Middle East and Central Asia, in order to revive the Mongolian Empire. The Inca Empire rose to prominence in South America. Spanish and Portuguese explorations led to first European sightings of the Americas and the sea passage along Cape of Good Hope to India, in the last decade of the century. After these first sightings by Europeans, transportation increased to Europe from America.
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The Protestant Reformation was a 16th-century split within Western Christianity initiated by Martin Luther, John Calvin and other early Protestants.... The efforts of the self-described "reformers", who objected to the doctrines, rituals and ecclesiastical structure of the Roman Catholic Church, led to the creation of new national Protestant churches. The Reformation was precipitated by earlier events within Europe, such as the Black Death and the Western Schism, which eroded people's faith in the Roman Catholic Church. This, as well as many other factors, contributed to the growth of lay criticism in the Church and the creation of Protestantism. The Roman Catholics responded with a Counter-Reformation, led by the Jesuit order, which established influence over large parts of Europe such as Poland. In general, northern Europe, with the exception of Ireland and pockets of Britain, turned Protestant. Southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while fierce battles which turned into warfare took place in central Europe.
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The scientific revolution is an era associated primarily with the 16th and 17th centuries during which new ideas and knowledge in physics, astronomy,... biology, medicine and chemistry transformed medieval and ancient views of nature and laid the foundations for modern science. According to most accounts, the scientific revolution began in Europe towards the end of the Renaissance era and continued through the late 18th century, the later period known as The Enlightenment. It was sparked by the publication in 1543 of two works that changed the course of science: Nicolaus Copernicus's De revolutionibus orbium coelestium and Andreas Vesalius's De humani corporis fabrica . Philosopher and historian Alexandre Koyré coined the term scientific revolution in 1939 to describe this epoch. The science of the middle ages was significant in establishing a base for modern science. The Marxist historian and scientist J. D. Bernal asserted that "the renaissance enabled a scientific revolution which let scholars look at the world in a different light. Religion, superstition, and fear were replaced by reason and knowledge".
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